Data structures are containers that store data in a specific layout format. This specific layout format enables the data

But if A contains the information that the children of B also have, then that information can be modified in multiple places. Therefore, the information about B isn’t safe anymore, and encapsulation is broken.,There are two types of arrays. They are one-dimensional arrays and multi-dimensional arrays. One-dimensional arrays are the simplest of arrays as they are linear. But multi-dimensional arrays are nested arrays which are basically arrays containing arrays.,There’s just one problem. The whole point of encapsulation is to keep pieces of data safe from one another and thus make computing more efficient. This doesn’t work without strict hierarchies.,The more properties you heap on a class, the more difficult it becomes to establish proper hierarchies. Really, you’re dealing with clusters of properties, where Copier shares some, but not all properties of Printer, and vice versa. And if you try to stick that into hierarchies, and you have a big complex project, this might lead you to a messy disaster.,You might say, alright, then we’ll just do object-oriented programming without hierarchies. Instead, we could use clusters of properties, and inherit, extend, or override properties as needed. Sure, that would be a bit messy, but it would be an accurate representation of the problem at hand.,Each element in the array is given a positive integer that denotes the location or position of the element in that array. This value is known as the index. Indexes start from zero in most languages and this concept is called zero-based numbering/indexing.,Well, you can’t do it. At least not in an elegant way. Consider for example the class Copier. (I borrowed this example, as well as some info about the problems presented here, from Charles Scalfani’s viral story Goodbye, Object Oriented Programming.) A copier scans the content of a document and prints it on an empty sheet. So should it be the subclass of Scanner, or of Printer?,If you want to start a business, you have to figure out what people want or need and give it to them. If you want to build a tribe or an audience, you need to find the intersection between what you want to say and what people want to hear or learn about. To reach any major goal, you mostly need to delay your gratification.,In the diamond problem, the question was which class Copier is a subclass of. But I lied to you — there is a neat solution. Let Copier be the parent class, and Scanner and Printer be subclasses that only inherit a subset of the properties. Problem fixed!,The more you use inheritance, the more maintenance you potentially have to do. So even though reusing code seems very efficient in the short term, it can get costly in the long run.,Arrays are one of the simplest and most commonly used data structures. Data structures such as Queues and Stacks are based on Arrays and Linked Lists (which we will look into after arrays).,Inheritance is this cute little thing where we can take properties of one class and transfer it to others. But what if you want to mix the properties of two different classes?,Consider what happens if an object A overrides the hierarchy by interacting with another object B. It doesn’t matter what relationship A has with B, except that B is not the direct parent class. Then A must contain a private reference to B, because otherwise, it couldn’t interact.,Delete — remove an array element at the given index. This can be performed either by making the element value as undefined or by copying the array elements excluding the element to be removed to a newer array.,That’s neat. But what if your Copier is only black-and-white, and your Printer can handle color, too? Isn’t Printer in that sense a generalization of Copier? What if Printer is connected to WiFi, but Copier is not?