Those decisions, paired with a lack of antitrust enforcement, led to the monopolized internet we have today, where most

“There’s a difference between fitness for performance and fitness for health,” he says. From a health standpoint, fitness can be about controlling blood sugar, improving mental health, or improving your longevity, he explains. Fitness for performance, on the other hand, zeroes in on getting stronger, faster, or fitter. “Exercise snacking is more about elevating your base level of health and keeping up with general movement, so you can perform better when you do want to perform.”

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In the United States, federal and state authorities are already conducting antitrust investigations into Amazon, Facebook, and Google. On October 20, the Department of Justice sued Google over its monopoly on search and search advertising. But given the right political circumstances, the rupture caused by an ad collapse could accelerate antitrust action to not only break up tech monopolies but also enforce rules that would limit mergers, acquisitions, and even the predatory pricing that has allowed companies to use venture capital to undercut their competition. Changing the rules that govern the market could then lead to very different outcomes.

“Rather than blow off your workout because you don’t have the time or motivation for a 45- or 60-minute session, know there is good scientific evidence validating the efficacy of short workouts.”

Whereas continuous, moderate-intensity exercise has those fuel gauges going down slowly over time, says Gibala, “what we’re learning is that you can also turn on those metabolic pathways with short, hard bursts of exercise that cause a sudden drop in fuel available.”

But a short interval workout doesn’t have to be that structured. When sedentary young adults performed exercise “snacks” — vigorously climbing 60 steps of stairs three times a day, leaving one to four hours between climbs for recovery — researchers (including Gibala) found that they not only showed improvements in their cardiorespiratory fitness, but they also were able to generate more power in a cycling test.

While a short workout does need to involve hard work, that intensity doesn’t have to be sustained the whole time (even if the whole time is just a few minutes), according to a 2016 study Gibala oversaw. In the study, two groups started workouts with a two-minute warm-up and finished with a three-minute cooldown. But in between, the first group rode on a stationary bike continuously for 45 minutes at a moderate intensity, while the second did three rounds that involved a 20-second all-out sprint on the bike followed by two minutes of slow recovery pedaling. After 12 weeks of doing these workouts three times a week, the scientists found the same physiological improvements (including increased oxygen uptake efficiency, insulin sensitivity, and mitochondrial function) in both groups — despite the fact that one logged 27 total hours of riding and the other a mere six.

Doctorow argues that enforcing interoperability — when your various services work together regardless of who owns them — would eradicate the walled gardens erected by the major platforms. That would allow people to access posts, messages, and other data on whatever app they wanted to, instead of being beholden to the platform giants. Your iOS Messages would be portable to Signal, Facebook posts to Mastodon, and so on. Platforms would have to compete on features and user experience, not by locking your friends and family into one platform by default.

The idea of exercise snacking has also been championed by Joe Holder, a performance specialist, health consultant, and founder of the Ocho System. In March, partially in response to the Covid-19 pandemic, Holder launched a library of under-20-minute exercise snacks on Instagram. To him, exercise snacks are about reframing your fitness mindset.

The digital economy emerged during a peak neoliberal period — the early 1990s to the 2000s — but it was possible only because of certain public policies. Historian Margaret O’Mara explains that for decades, the U.S. government poured public research money into key hubs around the country — Silicon Valley being one, Boston another — to ensure it didn’t fall behind the Soviet Union. That public funding produced many of the technologies that have been key to the digital revolution, including the ARPANET and NSFNET, the forerunners to the internet. But in the early 1990s, as the Soviet Union collapsed and traffic on the NSFNET was picking up, the privatization of the internet became an explicit policy of Bill Clinton’s administration. Under his watch, the public backbone of the internet was retired, the web was explicitly opened to commercial activity, and few rules were put in place to ensure what happened online was in the public good.

Then, if you were fed up with Facebook and there was another app that promised not to track you or sell your data, with interoperability you could switch to that new app and still communicate with your Facebook friends. In essence, the platform loses the ability to trap you and instead has to win you over.

We already see that in news, where declining ad revenue has not only led to the loss of thousands of journalism jobs but also incentivized major publications like the New York Times and the Washington Post, among many others, to add paywalls to their websites. While this brings in a new revenue stream for the publications, it arguably makes high-quality reporting harder to access, while the misleading, if not outright false, stories tend to be free and spread like wildfire on social media. This is a phenomenon that will need to be addressed in the ad-free web, and to locate possible alternatives, perhaps we should look to the past, when a more public-run internet reigned.

Both Doctorow and Hwang are excited about the different prospects that could emerge in such a scenario, but it could also present challenges to maintain equity online. Hwang explains that without financial speculation to inflate the value of advertising, the web may not generate as much revenue. For some, that would be “a painful transition, because it’s unclear if the aggregate size of the pie is just smaller,” he says, but for others, it would create an opportunity that was previously stifled by the dominance of the ad model. Hwang also warns that this future could create a more fragmented web where “some people will be able to afford the internet they knew, while other people will be pushed to a less featureful internet.” Advertising has funded all these free services that are the same whether you’re Mark Zuckerberg or one of Facebook’s poorly paid content moderators, but a proliferation of business models could also correspond with a greater inequity in our online experience.

For example, maybe you want to keep using Facebook, but it requires you give up even more of your data to remain profitable. Some people might be okay with that, but maybe you really care about privacy. So, thanks to interoperability, you subscribe to a new app called Securebook, where you can still communicate with all your Facebook friends, but there are no ads or tracking. Or maybe you go to Lookbook, where you get similar features, but it’s a barebones operation and the owners display only enough ads to keep it running, not turn big profits. But that’s fine because Facebook has to let you access your data from anywhere.

This health-based approach is especially relevant now; Americans spent 77% of their waking hours sitting or being otherwise inactive before a global pandemic, a study published in the Annals of Internal Medicine found, and sedentary behavior has long been linked to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and even premature death.